Populism, defined either as an ideology An ideology is a set of ideas that discusses one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense (see Ideology in everyday society below) and several philosophical tendencies (see Political ideologies), or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class[1][2][3][4] (more rarely and uncommonly), a political philosophy Political philosophy is the study of such as liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a[5][6][7] or a type of discourse[3][6], is a type of political-social thought that juxtaposes "the people" against "the elites", and urges social and political system changes. It can also be defined as a rhetorical style employed by members of various political or social movements. It is defined by the Cambridge dictionary as "political ideas and activities that are intended to represent ordinary people's needs and wishes".[8]

Contents

Academic definitions

Academic and scholarly definitions of populism vary widely and the term is often employed in loose, inconsistent and undefined ways to denote appeals to ‘the people’, ‘demagogy Demagogy or demagoguery is a strategy for gaining political power by appealing to the prejudices, emotions, fears and expectations of the public—typically via impassioned rhetoric and propaganda, and often using nationalist, populist or religious themes. What qualifies as demagogy has been the subject of debate and ambiguity since Aristophanes’ and ‘catch-all’ politics or as a receptacle for new types of parties whose classification is unclear. A factor held to diminish the value of ‘populism’ in some societies is that, as Margaret Canovan notes in her 1981 study Populism, unlike labels such as ‘conservative Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes the maintenance of traditional institutions and opposes rapid change in society. Some conservatives seek to preserve things as they are, emphasizing stability and continuity, while others oppose modernism and seek a return to "the way things were." The first established use’ or ‘socialist Socialism is an economic and political theory based on public or common ownership and cooperative management of the means of production and allocation of resources’, the meanings of which have been ‘chiefly dictated by their adherents’, contemporary populists rarely call themselves ‘populists’ and usually reject the term when it is applied to them by others [9]. Some exceptions to this pattern of pejorative usage exist, notably in the United States, but it appears likely that this is due to the memories and traditions of earlier democratic movements (for example, farmers' movements, New Deal The New Deal was a series of economic programs passed by Congress during the first term of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 32nd President of the United States, from 1933-1938. The programs were responses to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call the "3 Rs": relief, recovery and reform. That is, relief for the unemployed and reform movements, and the civil rights movement) that were often called populist, by supporters and outsiders alike. It may also be due to linguistic confusions of populism with terms such as "popular" [10].

Due to the attention on populism in the academic world, scholars have made advances in defining the term in ways that can be profitably employed in research and help to distinguish between movements that are populist and those that simply borrow populist ideas. One of the latest definitions of populism comes from Daniele Albertazzi and Duncan McDonnell who, in their volume Twenty-First Century Populism, define populism as "an ideology which pits a virtuous and homogeneous people against a set of elites and dangerous ‘others’ who are together depicted as depriving (or attempting to deprive) the sovereign people of their rights, values, prosperity, identity and voice" [11]. Rather than viewing populism in terms of specific social bases, economic programs, issues or electorates, as discussions of right-wing populism have tended to do[12], this conception of populism belongs to the tradition of scholars such as Ernesto Laclau Ernesto Laclau is an Argentine political theorist often described as post-Marxist. He is a professor at the University of Essex where he holds a chair in Political Theory and was for many years director of the doctoral Programme in Ideology and Discourse Analysis. He has lectured extensively in many universities in North America, South America,[13], Pierre-Andre Taguieff[14], Yves Meny and Yves Surel[15] who have all sought to focus on populism per se, rather than simply as an appendage of other ideologies such as nationalism or neo-liberalism. Given its central tenet that democracy should reflect the pure and undiluted will of the people, populism can sit easily with ideologies of both right In politics, right-wing and the Right are generally used to describe support for social stratification, the preservation of social order, and upholding traditional values. The terms Right and Left were coined during the French Revolution, referring to seating arrangements in parliament; those who sat on the right supported preserving the and left In politics, left-wing, leftist and the Left are generally used to describe support for social change with a view towards creating a more egalitarian society. The terms Left and Right were coined during the French Revolution, referring to the seating arrangement in parliament; those who sat on the left generally supported the radical changes of. While leaders of populist movements in recent decades have claimed to be on either the left or the right of the political spectrum A political spectrum is a way of modeling different political positions by placing them upon one or more geometric axes symbolizing independent political dimensions, many populists claim to be neither "left wing," "centrist In politics, centrism is the ideal or the practice of promoting moderate policies that lie between different political extremes. Most commonly, this is visualized as part of the one-dimensional political spectrum of left-right politics, with centrism landing in the middle between left-wing politics and right-wing politics. The phrase is often" nor "right wing."[16][17][18]

Styles and methods

Some scholars argue that populist organizing for empowerment represents the return of older "Aristotelian" politics of horizontal interactions among equals who are different, for the sake of public problem solving [19]. Populism has taken left-wing, right-wing, and even centrist[20] forms, as well as forms of politics that bring together groups and individuals of diverse partisan views.[21] The use of populist rhetoric in the United States has recently included references such as "the powerful trial lawyer A Tort is the French word for a "wrong." A tort is a civil wrong. A civil wrong is involves a breach of a duty owed to someone else, as opposed to criminal wrongdoing which involves a breach of a duty owed to society. Torts are civil wrongs other than breaches of contract and certain equitable wrongs lobby"[22][23], "the liberal elite," or "the Hollywood Hollywood is a neighborhood in Los Angeles, California - situated west-northwest of Downtown Los Angeles. Due to its fame and cultural identity as the historical center of movie studios and movie stars, the word "Hollywood" is often used as a metonymy of American cinema, and is often interchangeably used to refer to the greater Los elite"[24]. An example of populist rhetoric on the other side of the political spectrum was the theme of "Two Americas Two Americas is a catch phrase referring to social stratification in American society, made famous in a speech by former US Senator and former presidential candidate John Edwards, originally referring to haves and have-nots. The speech has since become popular and inspired many parodies and similar metaphors" in the 2004 Presidential Democratic Party The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's modern liberal platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. It is one of the world's oldest political parties and boasts the lengthiest record of continuous operation in the United campaign of John Edwards Johnny Reid "John" Edwards is an American politician who served as a U.S. Senator from North Carolina. He was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in 2004, and was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2004 and 2008.

Populists are seen by some politicians as a largely democratic Democracy is a political form of government where governing power is derived from the people, either by direct referendum or by means of elected representatives of the people (representative democracy). The term comes from the Greek: δημοκρατία - (dēmokratía) "rule of the people", which was coined from δῆμος (dêmos) & and positive force in society, while a wing of scholarship in political science contends that populist mass movements are irrational and introduce instability into the political process. Margaret Canovan Born in Carlisle in 1939, Canovan studied history at Girton College, Cambridge, where she subsequently completed a PhD on Joseph Priestley. She became a professor in the Politics Department at Lancaster University not long after its inception, later moving to Keele University where she remained until her retirement in 2002 argues that both these polar views are faulty, and has defined two main branches of modern populism worldwide — agrarian Agrarianism and agrarian have two meanings. One refers to a social philosophy or political philosophy which stresses the moral superiority of a rural life based on farming, as opposed to the supposed corruption of city life, with its banks and factories. Thomas Jefferson was a famous representative agrarian and political — and mapped out seven disparate sub-categories:

Agrarian

Political

Fascism and populism

It is believed by some that populist movements can be precursors for, or building blocks for, fascist Fascism, pronounced /ˈfæʃɪzəm/, is a radical and authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to organize a nation according to corporatist perspectives, values, and systems, including the political system and the economy. Fascism was originally founded by Italian national syndicalists in World War I who combined left-wing and movements.[26][27][28] Conspiracist scapegoating Scapegoating is the practice of singling out one child, employee, member of a group of peers, ethnic or religious group, or country for unmerited negative treatment or blame. Related concepts include frameup, whipping boy, jobber, sucker and fall guy employed by various populist movements can create "a seedbed for fascism."[29] National socialist Nazism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany. It was a unique variety of fascism that involved biological racism and anti-Semitism. Nazism presented itself as politically syncretic, incorporating policies, tactics and philosophies from right- and left-wing ideologies; in practice, Nazism was a far right form of populism interacted with and facilitated fascism in interwar Germany A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, has been known and documented before AD 100. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806. During the 16th century, northern Germany became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. As a modern nation-state,.[30] In this case, distressed middle–class populists during the pre-Nazi Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the government of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Worker's Party , from 1933 to 1945. Third Reich (German: Drittes Reich) denotes the Nazi state as the historical successor to the mediæval Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) and to the modern German Empire (1 Weimar The Weimar Republic ( Weimarer Republik , IPA: [ˈvaɪmaʁɐ ʁepuˈbliːk]) is the name given by historians to the parliamentary republic established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government. It was named after Weimar, the city where the constitutional assembly took place. Its official name was Deutsches Reich (sometimes period mobilized their anger at government and big business. The Nazis "parasitized the forms and themes of the populists and moved their constituencies far to the right through ideological appeals involving demagoguery Demagogy (Ancient Greek δημαγωγία, from δῆμος dēmos "people" and ἄγειν agein "to lead") is a strategy for gaining political power by appealing to the prejudices, emotions, fears and expectations of the public — typically via impassioned rhetoric and propaganda, and often using nationalist, populist or, scapegoating, and conspiracism."[31] According to Fritzsche:

The Nazis expressed the populist yearnings of middle–class constituents and at the same time advocated a strong and resolutely anti-Marxist mobilization....Against "unnaturally" divisive parties and querulous organized interest groups, National Socialists cast themselves as representatives of the commonwealth, of an allegedly betrayed and neglected German public....[b]reaking social barriers of status and caste A caste is a combined social system of occupation, endogamy, culture, social class, and political power. Caste should not be confused with class, in that members of a caste are deemed to be alike in function or culture, whereas not all members of a defined class may be so alike, and celebrating at least rhetorically the populist ideal of the people’s community...[32]

History in Europe

Classical populism

The word populism is derived from the Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many word populus, which means people in English English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into South-East Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria. Following the economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, and of (in the sense of "nation," as in: "The Roman People" (populus Romanus), not in the sense of "multiple individual persons" as in: "There are people visiting us today"). Therefore, populism espouses government by the people as a whole (that is to say, the masses). This is in contrast to elitism CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR, aristocracy Aristocracy from Greek aristo, - excellent, and kratos - power, is a form of government in which a few of the most prominent citizens rule. The term is derived from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best". See Aristocracy for the historical roots of the term. The concept evolved in Ancient Greece, whereby a council of, synarchy or plutocracy The word plutocracy is derived from the ancient Greek root ploutos, meaning wealth and kratos, meaning to rule or to govern, each of which is an ideology that espouse government by a small, privileged group above the masses.

Populism has been a common political phenomenon throughout history. The Populares Populares were aristocratic leaders in the late Roman Republic who relied on the people's assemblies and tribunate to acquire political power. They are regarded in modern scholarship as in opposition to the optimates, who are identified with the conservative interests of a senatorial elite. The populares themselves, however, were also of were an unofficial faction in the Roman senate The Roman Senate was a political institution in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being founded in the first days of the city . It survived the fall of the kings in 509 BC, the fall of the Roman Republic in the first century BC, the split of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, and the fall of the Western Roman whose supporters were known for their populist agenda. Some of the most well known of these were Tiberius Grachus, Gaius Marius Gaius Marius (157 BC–January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his dramatic reforms of Roman armies, authorizing recruitment of landless citizens and reorganizing the structure of the legions into separate cohorts, Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Cæsar/Caesar was a Roman military and political leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire and Caesar Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus was the first ruler of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from January 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[note 1] Born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, he was adopted posthumously by his great-uncle Gaius Julius Caesar in 44 BC, and between then and 31 BC was officially named Gaius Julius Caesar. In 27 BC the Senate awarded, all of whom eventually used referendums A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new constitution, a constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected official or simply a specific government policy. It is a form of direct democracy. The measure put to a vote is to bypass the Roman Senate The Roman Senate was a political institution in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being founded in the first days of the city . It survived the fall of the kings in 509 BC, the fall of the Roman Republic in the first century BC, the split of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, and the fall of the Western Roman and appeal to the people directly.

Early modern period

Populism rose during the Reformation; Protestant groups like the Anabaptists formed ideas about ideal theocratic societies, in which peasants would be able to read the Bible themselves. Attempts to establish these societies were made during the Peasants' War (1524–1525) and the Münster Rebellion (1534–1535). The peasant movement ultimately failed as cities and nobles made their own peace with the princely armies, which restored the old order under the nominal overlordship of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, represented in German affairs by his younger brother Ferdinand.

The same conditions contributed to the outbreak of the English Revolution of 1642–1651, also known as the English Civil War. Conditions led to a proliferation of ideologies and political movements among peasants, self-employed artisans, and working class people in England. Many of these groups had a dogmatic Protestant religious bent. They included Puritans and the Levellers.[citation needed]

Religious revival

Romanticism, the anxiety against rationalism, broadened after the beginnings of the European and Industrial Revolutions because of cultural, social, and political insecurity. Romanticism led directly to a strong popular desire to bring about religious revival, nationalism and populism. The ensuing religious revival eventually blended into political populism and nationalism, becoming at times a single entity and a powerful force of public will for change. This paradigm shift was marked by people looking for security and community because of a strong emotional need to escape from anxiety and to believe in something larger than themselves.[citation needed]

The revival of religiosity all over Europe played an important role in bringing people to populism and nationalism. In France, François-René de Chateaubriand provided the opening shots of Catholic revivalism as he opposed enlightenment's materialism with the "mystery of life," the human need for redemption[33]. In Germany, Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher promoted pietism by stating that religion was not the institution, but a mystical piety and sentiment with Christ as the mediating figure raising the human consciousness above the mundane to God's level[34]. In England, John Wesley's Methodism split with the Anglican church because of its emphasis on the salvation of the masses as a key to moral reform, which Wesley saw as the answer to the social problems of the day.[35]

Rejection of ultramontanism

Chateaubriand's beginning brought about two Catholic Revivals in France: first, a conservative revival led by Joseph de Maistre, which defended ultramontanism, which is a religious philosophy placing strong emphasis on the supremacy of the Pope, and a second populist revival led by Felicite de Lamennais, an excommunicated priest. This religious populism opposed ultramontanism and emphasized a church community dependent upon all the people, not just the elite. It stressed that church authority should come from the bottom up and that the church should alleviate suffering, not merely accept it. Both of these religious principles are based on populism.[36]

Latin America

Populism has been an important force in Latin American political history, where many charismatic leaders have emerged since the beginning of the 20th century. Populism in Latin America has been traced by some to concepts taken from Perón's Third Position.[37] Latin American countries have not always had a clear and consistent political ideology under populism. Populist practitioners in Latin America usually adapt politically to the prevailing mood of the nation, moving within the ideological spectrum from left to right many times during their political lives. Most of these countries cannot be as clearly and easily divided between liberals and conservatives, as in the United States, or between social democrats and Christian democrats as in European countries. The more recent pattern that has emerged among Latin American populists has been socialist populism[38][39] that appeals to masses of poor by promising redistributive policies[39] and state control of the nation's energy resources[40].

Populism has been fiscally supported in Latin America during periods of growth such as the 1950s and 1960s and during commodity price booms such as in oil and precious metals. Political leaders could gather followers among the popular classes with broad redistributive programs during these boom times. Populism in Latin America has been sometimes criticized for the fiscal policies of many of its leaders, but has also been defended for having allowed historically weak states to alleviate disorder and achieve a tolerable degree of stability while initiating large-scale industrialization. Though specific populist fiscal and monetary policies may be criticized by economic historians, populism has allowed leaders and parties to co-opt the radical ideas of the masses so as to redirect them in a non revolutionary direction[41].

Often adapting a nationalist vocabulary and rhetorically convincing, populism was used to appeal to broad masses while remaining ideologically ambivalent. Notwithstanding, there have been notable exceptions. 21st Century Latin-American populist leaders have had a decidedly socialist bent.[38][39]

When populists take strong positions on economic philosophies such as capitalism versus socialism, the position sparks strong emotional responses regarding how best to manage the nation's current and future social and economic position. Mexico's 2006 Presidential election was hotly debated among supporters and opponents of populist candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador.[42]

Inequality

Populism in Latin American countries has both an economic and an ideological edge. The situation is similar in many countries with legacies of poor and low-growth economies. These conditions have led to highly unequal societies in which people are divided between a relative few wealthy families and masses of poor (with some exceptions such as Argentina, where strong and educated middle classes are a significant segment of the population).[43]

Other perspectives trace inequality to the formation of Latin America's governments and institutions, which were shaped by the Spanish crown upon the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Latin America was not meant to be a colony for the settlers to live in and develop, like the United States, but a source of resources for the Spanish crown. After nations obtained their independence, many negative colonial social legacies survived.[44]

Populists can be very successful political candidates in such countries. In appealing to the masses of poor people prior to gaining power, populists may promise widely-demanded food, housing, employment, basic social services, and income redistribution. Once in political power, they may not always be financially or politically able to fulfill all these promises. However, they are very often successful in providing many broad and basic services[45][46].

US policy

The US has intervened in Latin American governments on many occasions where populism has threatened its interests: the interventions in Guatemala, when the populist Arbenz government was overthrown by a coup backed by the American company United Fruit and the American ambassador in 1954, and Augusto Pinochet's Chilean coup in 1973 are just two cases of American intervention. Daniel Ortega's Sandinista government in Nicaragua was also viewed as a threat to US foreign policy during the Cold War, leading the United States to place an embargo on trade with the Sandinista's Soviet-sponsored regime in 1985[47][48] as well as supporting anti-Sandinista rebels. Another example of US intervention has been seen in Colombia, particularly since the assassination of the populist leader Jorge Eliecer Gaitan in April 1948. Gaitan supported land reform and other socialist initiatives that posed a threat to American interests. For this reason, Gaitan's assassination is alleged to have been a CIA plot.[citation needed] To this day Colombia continues to be the US's most important ally in the region with continuous military aid under Plan Colombia.[citation needed]

Strength and current socialist tendency

Populism has remained a significant force in Latin America. Populism has recently been reappearing on the left with promises of far-reaching socialist changes as seen in Venezuela under Hugo Chavez. These socialist changes have included policies nationalizing energy resources such as oil to enable a socialist transformation. The Venezuelan government often spars verbally with the United States and accuses it of attempting to overthrow Chavez after supporting a failed coup against him. Chavez has been one of the most outspoken and blunt critics of U.S. foreign policy. Nevertheless, a large commodity trade continues between Venezuela and the U.S. due to the economic constraints of oil delivery and the proximity of the two countries.[49]

In the 21st century, the large numbers of voters living in extreme poverty in Latin America has remained a bastion of support for new populist candidates. By early 2008 governments with varying forms of populism and with some form of left leaning social democratic or democratic socialist platform had come to dominate virtually all Latin American nations with the exceptions of Colombia, El Salvador and Mexico.[50] This political shift includes both more developed nations such as Brazil with its ruling Workers' Party, Argentina's Front for Victory and Chile with its Socialist Party, and smaller income countries like Bolívia with its Movement towards Socialism and Paraguay with the Patriotic Alliance for Change. Populist candidates have been defeated in middle-income countries such as Mexico, in part by comparing them to Venezuela's controversial Hugo Chavez, whose socialist policies have been used to scare the middle class[citation needed]. Nevertheless, populist candidates have been more successful in poorer Latin American countries such as Bolivia (under Morales), Ecuador (under Correa) and Nicaragua (under Ortega). By the use of broad grassroots movements populist groups have managed to gain power from better organized, funded and entrenched groups such as the Bolivian Nationalist Democratic Action and the Paraguayan Colorado Party.[51]

Countries in Latin America with high rates of poverty, whose governments maintain and support unpopular privatizations and more orthodox economic policies that don't deliver general societal gains, will be under pressure from populist politicians and movements[52] accusing them of benefiting the upper and upper-middle classes[53][54] and of being allied to foreign and business interests[55][56].

Mexico

In Mexico, Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador's candidacy sparked very emotional debates throughout the country regarding policies that affect ideology, class, equality, wealth, and society. Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador's most controversial economic policies included his promise to expand monthly stipends to the poor and elderly from Mexico City to the rest of the country and to re-negotiate the North American Free Trade Agreement to protect the Mexican poor.

The ruling party in Mexico, the National Action Party (PAN), portrayed him as a danger to Mexico's hard-earned economic stability. In criticizing his redistributive promises that would create new entitlement programs somewhat similar to social security in the US (though not as broad in scope) and his trade policies that would not fully uphold prior agreements (such as NAFTA), the economic debate between capitalists and socialists became a major part of the debate. Felipe Calderon, the PAN candidate, portrayed himself as not just a standard-bearer for recent economic policy, but as a more proactive candidate, to distance himself from the main criticisms of his predecessor Vicente Fox regarding inaction. He labeled himself the "jobs president" and promised greater national wealth for all through steady future growth, fiscal prudence, international trade, and balanced government spending.[citation needed]

During the immediate aftermath of the tight elections in which the country's electoral court was hearing challenges to the vote tally that had Calderon winning, Obrador showed the considerable influence over the masses that are a trademark of populist politicians. He effectively led huge demonstrations, filling the central plaza with masses of sympathizers who supported his challenge. The demonstrations lasted for several months and eventually dissipated after the electoral court did not find sufficient cause from the challenges presented to overturn the results.[57][58]

United States

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The populist tradition and its rebirth

Andrew Jackson is a prime example of an American populist because he was popular among the common man and stood against the wealthy elite in power[citation needed].

There have been several versions of a populist party in the United States, some inspired by the Populist Party of the 1890s. This was the party of the early U.S. populist movement in which millions of farmers and other working people successfully enacted their anti-trust agenda.[citation needed]

Other early populist political parties in the United States included the Greenback Party, the Progressive Party of 1912 led by Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party of 1924 led by Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and the Share Our Wealth movement of Huey Long in 1933–35[citation needed].

George Wallace, Four-Term Governor of Alabama, led a populist movement that carried five states and won 13.5% of the popular vote in the 1968 presidential election. Campaigning against intellectuals and liberal reformers, Wallace gained a large share of the white working class vote in Democratic primaries in 1972.[59][60][61]

Populism continues to be a force in modern U.S. politics, especially in the 1992 and 1996 third-party presidential campaigns of billionaire Ross Perot[citation needed]. The 1996, 2000, 2004, and the 2008 presidential campaigns of Ralph Nader had a strong populist cast. The 2004 campaigns of Dennis Kucinich[62][63][64][65] and Al Sharpton also had populist elements. The 2004 and 2008 Democratic presidential candidate John Edwards has been described by many[66] (and by himself) as a "one economic community, one commonwealth"[66] populist.

Comparison between earlier surges of populism and those of today are complicated by shifts in what are thought to be the interests of the common people. Jonah Goldberg and others argue that in modern society, fractured as it is into myriad interest groups and niches, any attempt to define the interests of the "average person" will be so general as to be useless.[citation needed]

In 1984, the Populist Party name was revived by Willis Carto, and was used in 1988 as a vehicle for the presidential campaign of former Ku Klux Klan leader, and later member of both the Republican Party and the Democratic Party, David Duke. Right-wing Patriot movement organizer Bo Gritz was briefly Duke's running mate. This incarnation of populism was widely regarded as a vehicle for white supremacist recruitment. In this instance, populism was maligned by the use of a definition of "the people" that was not the prevailing definition.[citation needed]

Another populist mechanism was the initiative and referendum driven term limits movement of the early 1990s. In every state where term limits were on the ballot, the measure to limit incumbency in Congress passed. The average vote was 67% in favor. However, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down term limits in 1995 in the court case U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton[67].

In 1995, the Reform Party of the United States of America (RPUSA) was organized after the populist presidential campaign of Ross Perot in 1992. In the year 2000, an intense fight for the presidential nomination made Patrick J. Buchanan the RPUSA standard bearer. As result of his nomination as party candidate there were many party splits, not only from Buchanan supporters after he left the party, but also moderates, progressivists and libertarians around Jesse Ventura who refused to collaborate with the Buchanan candidacy. Since then the party's fortunes have markedly declined.

In the 2000s, new populist parties were formed in America. One was the Populist Party of America in 2002; another was the Populist Party of Maryland formed to support Ralph Nader in 2004, which ran candidates for governor, lieutenant governor, U.S. Senate and state delegate in the 2006 elections. Other examples are the American Populist Party, founded in 2009, and the American Populist Renaissance, founded in 2005[68][69]. The American Moderation Party, also formed in 2005, adopted several populist ideals, chief among them working against multinational neo-corporatism.

Some think-tanks such as the Cato Institute in America or the CEE Council in Europe have argued that the increasingly populist polarization of both Congress and the US body politic at large could hinder the Obama administration’s plans to reform health care and revamp bank regulations[70]

The recent Tea Party movement could certainly be understood as a anti-government and conservative populist movement[71].

Germany

Further information: Völkisch movement

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, a Lutheran Minister, a professor at the University of Berlin and the "father of gymnastics," introduced the concept of Volkstum, a racial nation that draws on the essence of a people that was lost in the Industrial Revolution. Adam Mueller went a step further by positing the state as a bigger totality than the government institution. This paternalistic vision of aristocracy concerned with social orders had a dark side in that the opposite force of modernity was represented by the Jews, who were said to be eating away at the state.[72] Populism also played a role in mobilizing middle class support for the Nazi Party in Weimar Germany.[73]. In this case, distressed middle–class populists during the pre-Nazi Weimar period mobilized their anger at government and big business. According to Fritzsche:

The Nazis expressed the populist yearnings of middle–class constituents and at the same time advocated a strong and resolutely anti-Marxist mobilization.... Against “unnaturally” divisive parties and querulous organized interest groups, National Socialists cast themselves as representatives of the commonwealth, of an allegedly betrayed and neglected German public....[b]reaking social barriers of status and caste, and celebrating at least rhetorically the populist ideal of the people’s community...[32]

France

In the late 18th century, the French Revolution, though led by wealthy intellectuals, could also be described as a manifestation of populist sentiment against the elitist excesses and privileges of the Ancien Régime.[74]

In France, the populist and nationalist picture was more mystical, metaphysical and literarian in nature[75]. Historian Jules Michelet (sometimes called a populist[76]) fused nationalism and populism by positing the people as a mystical unity who are the driving force of history in which the divinity finds its purpose.[74] Michelet viewed history as a representation of the struggle between spirit and matter; he claims France has a special place because the French became a people through equality, liberty, and fraternity. Because of this, he believed, the French people can never be wrong. Michelet's ideas are not socialism or rational politics, and his populism always minimizes, or even masks, social class differences.

In the 1950s, Pierre Poujade was the leader of the right-wing populist movement Union de Defense Commercants et Artisans (UDCA).[77] Jean Marie Le Pen (who was UDCA's youngest deputy in the 1950s)[78] can be characterized as right-wing populist[79] or extreme-right populist[78].

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Religious Rhetoric in American Populism: Civil Religion as Movement Ideology, Rhys H. Williams and Susan M. Alexander,1994, Society for the Scientific Study of Religion
  2. ^ Anthropology and development: understanding contemporary social change, Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan
  3. ^ a b CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES, Andras Bozoki, Terms: Winter and Spring 1995, Department of Political Science, Budapest, CENTRAL EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY
  4. ^ The Reinvention of Populism: Islamist Responses to Capitalist Development in the Contemporary Maghreb, Alejandro Colás, 2001
  5. ^ Merriam-Webster's collegiate encyclopedia, Merriam-Webster, Inc
  6. ^ a b Reasons for popularity of populist parties – Comparison of Poland and Estonia, Monika Kaliciak, p. 3
  7. ^ American Heritage Dictionary, entry "Populism"
  8. ^ populism – Cambridge Dictionary Oline: Free English Dictionary
  9. ^ Canovan, Margaret, 1981,Populism, New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, p.5
  10. ^ Boyte, Populism and John Dewey
  11. ^ Albertazzi, Daniele and Duncan McDonnell, 2008, Twenty-First Century Populism: The Spectre of Western European Democracy, New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan, p.3
  12. ^ Kitschelt, Herbert (with McGann, Anthony), 1995, The Radical Right in Western Europe. A Comparative Analysis, Ann Arbor: University of Michighan Press
  13. ^ Laclau, Ernesto, 2005, On Populist Reason, London: Verso
  14. ^ Taguieff, Pierre-Andre, 2002, L'illusion populiste, Paris: Berg International
  15. ^ Meny, Yves and Surel, Yves, 2002, Democracies and the Populist Challenge, London: Palgrave Macmillan
  16. ^ Canovan, Margaret. 1981. Populism.
  17. ^ Betz, Hans-Georg. 1994. Radical Right-wing Populism in Western Europe.
  18. ^ Kazin, Michael. 1995.The Populist Persuasion: An American History.
  19. ^ Harry C. Boyte, "A Different Kind of Politics," Dewey Lecture, University of Michigan, 2002. Online at Project Muse (login needed to see PDF file)
  20. ^ "The basic ideology of the middle class is populism.... Their ideal was an independent small property owning class consisting of merchants, mechanics, and farmers. This element...now designated as middle class, sponsored a system of private property, profit, and competition on an entirely different basis from that conceived by capitalism....From its very inception it opposed "big business" or what has now become known as capitalism." David Saposs, quoted in "Political Man", Lipset
  21. ^ Richard L. Wood, Faith in Action: Religion, Race, and Democratic Organizing in America, 2002
  22. ^ Ignore the Lawyers, Help the People – The powerful trial lawyers lobby must not be allowed to stymie tort reform.
  23. ^ Trial Lawyer Lobby Scores Several Big Victories — But Signs Of Hope In A Tough Election Year
  24. ^ And The Winner Is…The Hollywood Elite, January 27th, 2009
  25. ^ Canovan, Populism, pp. 13, 128–138
  26. ^ Ferkiss 1957.
  27. ^ Dobratz and Shanks–Meile 1988
  28. ^ Berlet and Lyons, 2000
  29. ^ Mary Rupert 1997: 96.
  30. ^ Fritzsche 1990: 149–150.
  31. ^ Berlet 2005.
  32. ^ a b Fritzsche 1990: 233–235
  33. ^ Three Minute Declamations for College Men, H. C. Davis,J. C. Bridgeman, The Mysteries of Life, Chateaubriand
  34. ^ "THE ROOTS AND FRUITS OF PIETISM", Ronald R. Feuerhahn, Concordia Historical Institute & the Luther Academy, September 17–18, 1998, PIEPER LECTURES 1998
  35. ^ Methodism and the Mob – what it really takes to change a culture, Lex Loizides' Blog, November 30, 2009
  36. ^ Origins of liberal dominance: state, church, and party in nineteenth-century Europe, Andrew Gould
  37. ^ [links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3816(195311)15%3A4%3C582%3APA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23]
  38. ^ a b Héctor E. Schamis – Populism, socialism and democratic institutions
  39. ^ a b c ARTICLE: Populism and Anti-Americanism in Modern Latin America, by Justin Lance
  40. ^ Populist Left in South America, The Big Question: Should We Be Worried by the Rise of the Populist Left in South America?, By David Usborne, The Independent UK, Thursday 04 May 2006
  41. ^ Populist Policies In The Transition To Democracy, Daniel Mejía and Carlos Esteban Posada
  42. ^ January 24, 2007: Mexican Political Polarization Limited to Elites Despite Contested Election, APSA Press Release
  43. ^ CURRENT ECONOMIC ISSUES IN ARGENTINA A TEACHING MODULE, Z. Edward O'Relley, November, 2001
  44. ^ Inequality in Republican Latin America: Assessing the Effects of Factor Endowments and Trade, A. Leticia Arroyo Abad
  45. ^ DEALING WITH POLITICAL FERMENT IN LATIN AMERICA: THE POPULIST REVIVAL, THE EMERGENCE OF THE CENTER, AND IMPLICATIONS OR U.S. POLICY
  46. ^ The Impact of "Populism" on Social, Political, and Economic Development in the Hemisphere, Vladimir Torres
  47. ^ Anti-Sandinistas Say U.S. Should End Embargo – New York Times
  48. ^ Nicaragua:: The Sandinista government – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  49. ^ Venezuela-US trade under the microscope, By Greg Morsbach
  50. ^ More leftist leaders in Latin America – Americas – MSNBC.com
  51. ^ Latin America gets another leftist leader Fernando Lugo's victory in Paraguay adds to the leftward tilt
  52. ^ Patricio Navia and Ignacio Walker, Chapter 8, Political Institutions, Populism, and Democracy in Latin America, in Scott and Timothy R. Scully (ed), Democratic Governance in Latin America, Stanford University Press, 2008, pg. 2 – 3
  53. ^ En 16 años, los gobiernos neoliberales democratizaron el hambre. Discurso de Daniel Ortega en Estelí, Radio La Primerísima, 7 julio de 2007
  54. ^ Pemex y los GOBIERNOS NEOLIBERALES, ALBERTO TORRENTERA
  55. ^ Bolivia y el mandato progresista en Latinoamérica, Mark Engler and Benjamin Dangl, 13 de abril de 2006
  56. ^ La Reforma del Estado desde la perspectiva neoliberal, Roberto ESCAMILLA PÉREZ, jueves 3 de abril de 2008, ¡Babor!
  57. ^ Dog Brothers Public Forum, Mexico
  58. ^ The Challenge of Closely Fought Elections, Whitehead, Laurence Project MUSE – Journal of Democracy, Volume 18, Number 2, April 2007
  59. ^ Behind the backlash: white working-class politics in Baltimore, 1940–1980 Por Kenneth D. Durr, pg 183
  60. ^ America's Forgotten Majority, June 2000, by Joel Rogers and Ruy Teixeira
  61. ^ George C. Wallace, Stormfront
  62. ^ Willie Nelson's populist beliefs lead him to underdog Kucinich., Star-Telegraf
  63. ^ Gore Vidal for Dennis Kucinich: A farsighted populist and pacifist., The Nation November 8, 2007 01:44 PM
  64. ^
  65. ^ http://blog.4president.us/2004/dennis_kucinich/index.html 2004 Presidential Campaign Blog. Dennis Kuchinich
  66. ^ a b February 7, 2007, three forms of populism in the 2008 campaign (scroll down)
  67. ^ Congressional Term Limits Struck Down; Supreme Court's 5–4 Ruling Upsets Laws in 23 States, Joan Biskupic, The Washington Post, May 23, 1995
  68. ^ American Populist Renaissance on MySpace, MySpace Groups
  69. ^ American Populist Renaissance official website
  70. ^ (French) 'Financial Orthodoxy and Bank Regulation: the Lessons from the Glass Steagall Act', http://www.ovfa.at/oevfa/oevfa_v3.nsf/sysPages/SFAF_Newsletter.htm/$File/SFAF%20Newsletter%20Mostb%C3%B6ck%20CEE.pdf, retrieved 2010-01-04
  71. ^
  72. ^ Vokabular des Nationalsozialismus, Cornelia Schmitz-Berning
  73. ^ Fritzsche 1990: 149–150, 1998
  74. ^ a b SYNTHÈSE : LE PEUPLE ! QUEL PEUPLE ? HISTOIRE D'UN MOT
  75. ^ Le mythe du peuple et la société française du XIXe siècle, JSTOR
  76. ^ Le populisme, voilà l’ennemi !, April 1996, Le Monde diplomatique
  77. ^ Fascism, populism and the French Fifth Republic: in the shadow of democracy, Catherine Fieschi
  78. ^ a b French shopkeepers on the march, Mary Dejevsky, Sunday, 5 November 1995, The Independent
  79. ^ [http://www.euroculturemaster.org/docs/2-Bahl_Claudia-D-SE.pdf Europeanized Nationalism? – European Right-Wing Populist Parties and the Notion of European Identity]

References

Europe

United States

External links

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Categories: Political theories | Populism

 

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Wash Post gives New Black Panther story new life - Salon
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Salon The history of American populism , according to Olsen as filtered through reflexive centrist Broder, is a history of two distinct sides, ...
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THE POPULARITY OF THE REPUBLIC ITSELF ACTS AS A BRAKE ON POPULISM :
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THE POPULARITY OF THE REPUBLIC ITSELF ACTS AS A BRAKE ON POPULISM :

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Mon, 28 Jun 2010 20:43:34 GM

Though classic . populism. has varied according to time and place, it has generally taken the form of a morality play in four acts. In the first act, the masses come to feel like powerless victims, left helpless against the onslaught of an ...

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'Populism' Answers
What's the difference between "populism" and "pandering?"?
Q. I know they're spelled and defined differently in the dictionary; but I haven't seen a difference exhibited during this election cycle.
Asked by Boomer Wisdom - Tue Apr 22 20:06:33 2008 - - 9 Answers - 0 Comments

A. I think populism would be an attempt to resonate with the best instincts shared among the members of one's audience, while pandering would be an attempt to resonate with the worst ones. Ideally, one entails shared recognition and respect, shared experiences and aspirations; whereas the other is a demeaning and manipulative, a hungry pity-party. One expands and is inclusive, the other excludes "those who don't get it." EDIT: "special places" are likely reserved for those who pander through appealing to their audience's best intentions (empathy, etc.) only to use their audience's misplaced compassion to rise to power---that's what I see now---a decades-long con game
Answered by aural margin - Tue Apr 22 20:12:32 2008

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